Agro-morphological characterization and estimation of genetic parameters of spring maize hybrids in the inner plains of Far-West Nepal

Sandesh Thapa Darbin Joshi (2022, [Artículo])

Heat Resilient Maize Phenotypic Coefficient of Variation Heritable Traits CIENCIAS AGROPECUARIAS Y BIOTECNOLOGÍA GENETIC PARAMETERS MAIZE HYBRIDS

Genome-wide association analyses of agronomic traits and Striga hermonthica resistance in pearl millet

Hussein Shimelis Chris Ojiewo Abhishek Rathore (2023, [Artículo])

Pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum [L.] R. Br.) is a nutrient-dense, relatively drought-tolerant cereal crop cultivated in dry regions worldwide. The crop is under-researched, and its grain yield is low (< 0.8 tons ha−1) and stagnant in the major production regions, including Burkina Faso. The low productivity of pearl millet is mainly attributable to a lack of improved varieties, Striga hermonthica [Sh] infestation, downy mildew infection, and recurrent heat and drought stress. Developing high-yielding and Striga-resistant pearl millet varieties that satisfy the farmers’ and market needs requires the identification of yield-promoting genes linked to economic traits to facilitate marker-assisted selection and gene pyramiding. The objective of this study was to undertake genome-wide association analyses of agronomic traits and Sh resistance among 150 pearl millet genotypes to identify genetic markers for marker-assisted breeding and trait introgression. The pearl millet genotypes were phenotyped in Sh hotspot fields and screen house conditions. Twenty-nine million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) initially generated from 345 pearl millet genotypes were filtered, and 256 K SNPs were selected and used in the present study. Phenotypic data were collected on days to flowering, plant height, number of tillers, panicle length, panicle weight, thousand-grain weight, grain weight, number of emerged Striga and area under the Striga number progress curve (ASNPC). Agronomic and Sh parameters were subjected to combined analysis of variance, while genome-wide association analysis was performed on phenotypic and SNPs data. Significant differences (P < 0.001) were detected among the assessed pearl millet genotypes for Sh parameters and agronomic traits. Further, there were significant genotype by Sh interaction for the number of Sh and ASNPC. Twenty-eight SNPs were significantly associated with a low number of emerged Sh located on chromosomes 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 7. Four SNPs were associated with days-to-50%-flowering on chromosomes 3, 5, 6, and 7, while five were associated with panicle length on chromosomes 2, 3, and 4. Seven SNPs were linked to thousand-grain weight on chromosomes 2, 3, and 6. The putative SNP markers associated with a low number of emerged Sh and agronomic traits in the assessed genotypes are valuable genomic resources for accelerated breeding and variety deployment of pearl millet with Sh resistance and farmer- and market-preferred agronomic traits.

High-Yielding Varieties Striga-Resistant Agronomic Parameters CIENCIAS AGROPECUARIAS Y BIOTECNOLOGÍA GENOME-WIDE ASSOCIATION STUDIES STRIGA HERMONTHICA PEARL MILLET

Análisis de velocidad de soldadura robotizada para proceso MIG en acero1045 AISI

Carlos Eduardo Hernández Acero (2022, [Tesis de maestría])

Esta investigación denominada “análisis de velocidad de soldadura robotizada para proceso MIG en acero 1045 AISI” busca el desarrollo de un modelo matemático que permita, mediante parámetros conocidos, el cálculo de la penetración de soldadura en piezas unidas con proceso Metal Inert Gas (MIG). El objetivo se centra en buscar la combinación de valores paramétricos para la velocidad de soldadura, el voltaje y la corriente, los que se obtienen mediante la aplicación de un diseño experimental, que, ejecutadas en el proceso, pueda lograr una penetración de soldadura aceptable para la unión de la pieza. El modelo de superficie de respuesta aplicado fue un diseño de experimentos 2k con diseño central compuesto, y posteriormente el modelo se utilizó para estimar la velocidad de soldadura. Este diseño de experimentos se ejecutó por medio del programa estadístico Minitab versión 17. (Hernández Acero et al., 2022). Una vez teniendo la penetración de soldadura deseada en la pieza, se puede calcular la velocidad de soldadura necesaria para el cálculo de tiempo ciclo y utilizar los parámetros definidos de corriente y voltaje. Los valores de estos factores serán útiles para comenzar la programación del robot ya con la celda funcional y reducir el tiempo de arranque en automático (Hernández Acero et al., 2022).

This research, named “robotic welding speed analysis for MIG process in 1045 AISI steel”, seeks to develop a mathematical model that allow, through know parameters, the calculation of welding penetration in parts joined with Metal Inert Gas (MIG) process. The objective is focused on finding the combination of parametric values for robot welding speed, voltage and current, which are obtained through the application of a design of experiments, which, executed in the process, can achieve an acceptable welding penetration for the union of the part. The response surface model applied was a 2k design of experiments with central composite design, and subsequently the model was used to estimate the welding speed. This design of experiments was obtained using the statistical software Minitab version 17. (Hernández Acero et al., 2022). Once having the desired welding penetration in the part, it can calculate the welding speed necessary for the cycle time calculation and use the defined parameters of current and voltage to start programming the robot with the functional cell and reduce the time of startup (Hernández Acero et al., 2022).

Soldadura MIG Penetración Tiempo ciclo Velocidad de soldadura MIG welding Penetration Cycle time Welding speed INGENIERÍA Y TECNOLOGÍA CIENCIAS TECNOLÓGICAS OTRAS ESPECIALIDADES TECNOLÓGICAS OTRAS OTRAS

Diseño y desarrollo de dispositivo de sujeción hidráulica para el proceso de brochado

Design and development of hydraulic clamping device for broaching process

Jorge Morales Carlos Álvarez Raúl Pérez Bustamante (2023, [Artículo])

Se desarrollo un dispositivo de sujeción hidráulica para el proceso de brochado de Brackets usados en los sistemas de frenado de automóviles, que permite reducir la variación del proceso de corte al mejorar el sistema de sujeción y con ello limitar la deformación de la pieza luego de haber sido procesada. Con este concepto de dispositivo es posible mejorar las condiciones del proceso de producción, como lo son: velocidad de corte, reducción de tiempo ciclo, rendimiento de la operación, reducción de costo de scrap, y reducción de tiempo muerto por sobre ajuste de proceso y cambio de modelo. Adicional, se hizo el desarrollo de un sistema de detección de pieza presente que permite captar cuando una pieza no es colocada correctamente en el dispositivo antes de iniciar el ciclo de corte, con esto es posible detectar fallas en el proceso que representen un riesgo para la operación. Durante la etapa de diseño se realizó una simulación del proceso de maquinado en condiciones extremas y condiciones ideales para medir la deformación de la pieza y con esto obtener los parámetros adecuados de corte para la puesta en marcha del dispositivo de sujeción. Para la validación del modelo, se realizó un estudio de habilidad de proceso Cpk y Ppk (acorde a los requerimientos de cliente) para evaluar que el nuevo proceso es eficiente y se encuentra bajo control.

A hydraulic clamping device was developed for the broaching process of Brackets used in automotivebraking systems, which allows reducing the variation of the cutting process by improving the clamping system andthereby limiting the deformation of the piece after having been processed. With this concept of device, it is possibleto improve the conditions of the production process such as: cutting speed, cycle time reduction, operationperformance, scrap cost reduction, and downtime reduction due to process over-adjustment and change over.Additionally, the development of a part detection system was made that allows capturing when a part is not correctlyplaced in the device before starting the cutting cycle, with this it is possible to detect failures in the process thatrepresent a risk to the operation. During the design stage, a simulation of the machining process was carried outin extreme conditions and ideal conditions to measure the deformation of the part and with this obtain theappropriate cutting parameters for the implementation of the clamping device. For the validation of the model, aCpk and Ppk process ability study was carried out (according to customer requirements) to assess that the newprocess is efficient and is under control.

Agradecemos al Centro de Investigación y Asistencia Técnica del Estado de Querétaro, A.C. (CIATEQ) y a la empresa donde fue desarrollado el proyecto por todas las facilidades otorgadas para la realización de dicho proyecto, de igual manera, agradecer por el apoyo brindado a todas las personas involucradas directa o indirectamente en el desarrollo de este trabajo.

Agradecimientos de autoría: Jorge Alberto Morales Martínez: Conceptualización; Metodología; Software; Análisis formal; Investigación; Adquisición de fondos; Recursos; Análisis de datos; Borrador original; Administración de proyecto, Revisión y edición. Carlos Marín: Conceptualización; Ideas; Análisis de datos; Software; Análisis formal y Supervisión. Raúl Pérez Bustamante: Revisión y edición.

Dispositivo de sujeción Proceso de brochado Bracket Sistema de frenado Parámetros de corte Cpk Ppk Clamping device Broaching process Brake system Cutting parameters INGENIERÍA Y TECNOLOGÍA CIENCIAS TECNOLÓGICAS OTRAS ESPECIALIDADES TECNOLÓGICAS OTRAS OTRAS

In-service weld repair by direct deposition: numerical simulation and experimental validation

LUIS DANTE MELENDEZ MORALES Jose Jorge Ruiz Mondragon MARICRUZ HERNANDEZ HERNANDEZ (2023, [Artículo])

In-Service Welding is a technological process for which interconnection and repair of pipelines can be made while they are in operation, before making it two main risks need to be assessed: hydrogen cracking and burn-through. Current simulations and validations assess these risks independently, but due to its interdependence these risks need to be assessed in conjunction. A repair method not normally used, but with high potential due to its simplicity and versatility is the direct deposition of weld. In the present research, a fluid-thermo-mechanical coupled simulation and validation were done of an in-service welding repair by direct deposition on a flowing pressurized pipe having an internal defect. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of using this repair method to restore the mechanical strength of pipelines. Surface, sub-surface, and volumetric non-destructive examinations evidenced no cracking immediately to finish the repair and delayed. Temperature tendency curves showed good approximations having a maximum difference of 5.09 % between numerical and experimental. Perimeter deformation along the pipe length between numerical and experimental results displayed a similar behaviour with a significant difference in the numerical values attributed to the lack of input data for weld properties. The structural analysis performed in this study used the approach of the risk of burn-through under internal pressure determined by the occurrence of localized radial bulging. Numerical results indicated no relevant plastic strain occurs. Is strongly recommended that thermal analysis assessments using the actual defect morphology would be performed, not only considering the remaining thickness of the pipe.

Declaration of Competing Interest: The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements: The authors gratefully acknowledge to Petropipe de Mexico for technical support, materials and equipment needed for the experimental validation. The first author wants also to acknowledge to CONAHCYT (Consejo Nacional de Humanidades, Ciencias y Tecnologías), for the post-graduate scholarship received.

In-service welding Burn-through Hydrogen cracking Weld repair INGENIERÍA Y TECNOLOGÍA CIENCIAS TECNOLÓGICAS OTRAS ESPECIALIDADES TECNOLÓGICAS OTRAS OTRAS

Development and demographic parameters of Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda J.E. Smith) when feeding on rice (Oryza sativa)

Timothy Joseph Krupnik (2023, [Artículo])

Fall Armyworm (FAW), Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), native to the Americas, is a polyphagous insect pest feeding on more than 350 plant species. We studied the developmental and demographic parameters of the maize (Zea mays) strain of FAW on rice (Oryza sativa), and compared the results with its prime host, maize. The developmental period from egg to adult among rice varieties did not differ significantly; however, it did differ significantly between rice and maize, as feeding on rice rather than maize extends development duration of FAW larvae by 15.15%. FAW larvae collected and reared on maize were found to be of significantly higher weight than those reared on rice at two sequential dates of their development; pupal weight however was observed as statistically similar between these two host crops. Regardless of the host, female adults always emerged before males; in maize, female FAW appeared 3.36 days earlier than males. Females derived from rice had longer pre-oviposition periods and shorter oviposition ones than those derived from maize. In rice and maize, the age-specific fecundity rate (mx) peaked at 40 days and 33 days, respectively. When the Fall Armyworm consumed maize instead of rice, there was an increase in the reproduction rate (R 0), the intrinsic rate of natural increase (rm), and the finite rate of increase (λ). For instance, when FAW fed on rice, the rm value was 0.121, whereas it rose to 0.173 when FAW fed on maize. Feeding on rice instead of maize resulted in significantly longer mean length of generation (tG) and doubling time (tD) for the fall armyworm (FAW). This suggests that it took a longer time for the FAW population to double when it was fed rice under controlled greenhouse conditions. In summary, our research suggests that FAW can survive and complete its life cycle on rice plants and on multiple varieties of rice in Bangladesh. However, field verification is necessary before drawing strong conclusions as to the risk posed by FAW in rice. This requires additional studies of FAW and associated insect community dynamics under non-controlled conditions and in the context of multi-species interactions in Asian rice fields.

Invasive Pest Life Table Parameters CIENCIAS AGROPECUARIAS Y BIOTECNOLOGÍA HOST PLANTS PESTS RICE SPODOPTERA FRUGIPERDA FALL ARMYWORMS

Simulación y validación de la reparación de ductos en servicio por la deposición directa de soldadura

LUIS DANTE MELENDEZ MORALES (2023, [Tesis de doctorado])

El transporte de hidrocarburos por ductos enterrados es la forma más segura, confiable y económica para su suministro, estos pueden extenderse grandes longitudes territoriales e inclusive atravesar países con tal de satisfacer la demanda energética. No obstante, los ductos pueden sufrir daños provocados por el ambiente, su operación o bien provocados por terceros, siendo necesario que sean intervenidos reemplazando las secciones dañadas. Las regulaciones nacionales y tratados internacionales desalientan la liberación de grandes cantidades de gas natural a la atmósfera, por demás de que un paro de suministro conlleva a desabasto energético, multas y a costosas operaciones asociadas con la rehabilitación del ducto, forzando a soldar envolventes y accesorios sin detener la operación de los ductos, esto se conoce como “soldadura en servicio”. La soldadura en servicio es un proceso tecnológico, por el cual se puede efectuar la interconexión y la reparación de ductos mientras están en operación, previo a realizar estas actividades, se requiere que dos riesgos sean evaluados: agrietamiento por hidrógeno y quemada pasante. Las simulaciones actuales y validaciones evalúan estos riesgos de forma independiente, pero debido a su interdependencia estos riesgos deben evaluarse en conjunto. Un método de reparación que no es normalmente empleado, pero con un alto potencial debido a su simplicidad y versatilidad, es la deposición directa de soldadura. En la presente investigación, se realizó una simulación numérica fluido-termo-mecánica acoplada con validación experimental, de la reparación de un tubo con flujo presurizado conteniendo un defecto interno por la deposición directa de soldadura. Por medio de la cual, es posible predecir el comportamiento estructural del ducto mientras se realiza la reparación.

La simulación numérica se efectuó con el apoyo del software ANSYS versión académica 22R2, siendo esta una herramienta de última generación capaz de contribuir en la predicción de mecanismos complejos como lo es la soldadura en servicio, incrementando con ello la seguridad y confiabilidad de estas operaciones. Cabe hacer mención, que la regulación nacional prohíbe la reparación de defectos internos por la deposición directa de soldadura, esto se debe principalmente a la falta de investigaciones validadas que respalden su viabilidad. Los resultados demostraron la efectividad de emplear este método de reparación para restaurar la resistencia mecánica de los ductos. Las inspecciones por pruebas no destructivas superficiales, subsuperficiales y volumétricas, evidenciaron que no ocurrió agrietamiento inmediatamente al finalizar la reparación y retardada (posterior a por lo menos 12 horas después de haberse finalizada la reparación, tiempo suficiente para permitir la difusión de hidrógeno atómico a hidrógeno molecular). Las curvas de tendencia de temperatura mostraron buena aproximación teniéndose una diferencia máxima de 5.09% entre los resultados numéricos y experimental. Los resultados numéricos y experimentales de la deformación perimetral a lo largo de la longitud de la tubería mostraron un comportamiento similar con una diferencia significativa del 17.7% entre los valores numéricos atribuidos a la falta de información de entrada para las propiedades de la soldadura. El análisis estructural efectuado en este estudio emplea la estimación del riesgo de quemada pasante bajo presión interna, determinado por la ocurrencia de abultamiento radial localizado. Los resultados numéricos indican que no ocurre deformación plástica relevante. Se hace una fuerte recomendación para que las evaluaciones de análisis térmico empleen la morfología actual del defecto y no solo consideren el espesor remanente del tubo. De acuerdo con la revisión bibliográfica realizada y recientemente publicada, este tipo de simulación numérica acoplada con validación experimental de la reparación de ductos en servicio por deposición directa de soldadura para la reparación de defectos internos contemplando la prevención de quemada pasante y agrietamiento por hidrógeno no ha sido realizada con anterioridad.

Hydrocarbon transportation by buried pipelines is the safest, most reliable, and economical way for its supply; these can extend long territorial distances and even cross countries with the purpose of satisfying the energy demand. However, the pipelines can suffer damages caused by their environment, their operation, or provoked by third parties, making necessary interventions to replace the damaged sections. National regulations and international agreements discourage the release of large quantities of natural gas into the atmosphere; moreover, a stop in its supply entails an energetic shortage, fines, and expensive operations associated with the pipeline rehabilitation, forcing to weld sleeves and fittings without stop the pipeline operation, this is known as “In-Service Welding”. In-Service welding is a technological process for which interconnection and repair of pipelines can be made while they are in operation; before making it, two main risks need to be assessed: hydrogen cracking and burn-through. Current simulations and validations assess these risks independently, but due to their interdependence, these risks need to be assessed in conjunction. A repair method not normally used but with high potential due to its simplicity and versatility is the direct deposition of the weld. In the present research, a fluid-thermo-mechanical coupled numerical simulation with experimental validation was done of a repair on a pipe with pressurized flow having an internal defect by direct deposition of the weld. It is possible predict the structural behavior of a pipeline while the reparation is performed.

The numerical simulation was done with the support of ANSYS software academic version 22R2, the latest generation tool able to contribute to the prediction of complex mechanisms, as is in-service welding, increasing the security and confidence of these operations. It is worth mentioning that national regulation forbids the reparation of internal defects for direct deposition of the weld; the main reason is the lack of validated investigations supporting its viability. The results demonstrated the effectiveness of using this repair method to restore the mechanical strength of pipelines. Surface, sub-surface, and volumetric non-destructive inspections evidenced no cracking immediately to finish the repair and delayed (after at least 12 hours of having finished the repair, time enough to allow the hydrogen diffusion from atomic hydrogen to molecular hydrogen). Temperature tendency curves showed good approximations, having a maximum difference of 5.09 % between numerical and experimental. Perimeter deformation along the pipe length between numerical and experimental results displayed a similar behavior with a significant difference of 17.7% against numerical values attributed to the lack of input data for weld properties. The structural analysis performed in this study used the approach of the risk of burn-through under internal pressure determined by the occurrence of localized radial bulging. Numerical results indicated no relevant plastic strain occurs. It is strongly recommended that thermal analysis assessments using the actual defect morphology be performed, not only considering the remaining thickness of the pipe. According to the bibliographic revision performed and recently published, this kind of coupled numerical simulation of in-service repair or pipelines by direct deposition for repairing internal defects considering the prevention of burn-through and hydrogen cracking has not been done.

Ducto Soldadura en servicio Quemada pasante Agrietamiento por hidrógeno Reparación de soldadura Simulación numérica Pipeline In-service welding Burn-through Hydrogen cracking Weld repair Numerical simulation INGENIERÍA Y TECNOLOGÍA CIENCIAS TECNOLÓGICAS OTRAS ESPECIALIDADES TECNOLÓGICAS OTRAS ESPECIALIDADES TECNOLÓGICAS

Waterhole detection using a vegetation index in desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis cremnobates) habitat

Jonathan Gabriel Escobar Flores (2019, [Artículo])

In arid ecosystems, desert bighorn sheep are dependent on natural waterholes, particularly in summer when forage is scarce and environmental temperatures are high. To detect waterholes in Sierra Santa Isabel, which is the largest area of desert bighorn sheep habitat in the state of Baja California, Mexico, we used the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) and normalized difference water index (NDWI) from Sentinel-2 satellite images. Waterhole detection was based on the premise that sites with greater water availability, where NDVI was higher, can be identified by their density of vegetation greenness. For the detected waterholes, we estimated the escape terrain (presence of cliffs or steep, rocky slopes) around each by the vector ruggedness measure to determine their potential use by desert bighorn sheep based on the animals’ presence as documented by camera traps. We detected 14 waterholes with the NDVI of which 11 were known by land owners and 3 were unrecorded. Desert bighorn were not detected in waterholes with high values of escape terrain, i.e., flat areas. Waterhole detection by NDVI is a simple method, and with the assistance and knowledge of the inhabitants of the Sierra, it was possible to confirm the presence each waterhole in the field. © 2019 Escobar-Flores et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Article, bighorn sheep, environmental aspects and related phenomena, environmental parameters, habitat, Mexico, nonhuman, normalized difference vegetation index, normalized difference water index, water availability, waterhole, animal, bighorn sheep, CIENCIAS AGROPECUARIAS Y BIOTECNOLOGÍA CIENCIAS AGRARIAS CIENCIA FORESTAL CIENCIA FORESTAL

Effects of geostrophic kinetic energy on the distribution of mesopelagic fish larvae in the southern Gulf of California in summer/fall stratified seasons

FERNANDO CONTRERAS CATALA (2016, [Artículo])

Effects of geostrophic kinetic energy flux on the three-dimensional distribution of fish larvae of mesopelagic species (Vinciguerria lucetia, Diogenichthys laternatus, Benthosema panamense and Triphoturus mexicanus) in the southern Gulf of California during summer and fall seasons of stronger stratification were analyzed. The greatest larval abundance was found at sampling stations in geostrophic kinetic energy-poor areas (&lt;7.5 J/m3), where the distribution of the dominant species tended to be stratified. Larvae of V. lucetia (average abundance of 318 larvae/10m2) and B. panamense (174 larvae/10m2) were mostly located in and above the pycnocline (typically ∼ 40 m depth). In contrast, larvae of D. laternatus (60 larvae/10m2) were mainly located in and below the pycnocline. On the other hand, in sampling stations from geostrophic kinetic energy-rich areas (&gt; 21 J/m3), where mesoscale eddies were present, the larvae of the dominant species had low abundance and were spread more evenly through the water column, in spite of the water column stratification. For example, in a cyclonic eddy, V. lucetia larvae (34 larvae/10m2) extended their distribution to, at least, the limit of sampling 200 m depth below the pycnocline, while D. laternatus larvae (29 larvae/10m2) were found right up to the surface, both probably as a consequence mixing and secondary circulation in the eddy. Results showed that the level of the geostrophic kinetic energy flux affects the abundance and the three-dimensional distribution of mesopelagic fish larvae during the seasons of stronger stratification, indicating that areas with low geostrophic kinetic energy may be advantageous for feeding and development of mesopelagic fish larvae because of greater water column stability. © 2016 Contreras-Catala et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

Article, autumn, Benthosema panamense, Diogenichthys laternatus, environmental factor, environmental parameters, fish, geographic distribution, geostrophic kinetic energy, hydrography, larva, nonhuman, population abundance, population dispersion, pop CIENCIAS FÍSICO MATEMÁTICAS Y CIENCIAS DE LA TIERRA CIENCIAS DE LA TIERRA Y DEL ESPACIO OCEANOGRAFÍA OCEANOGRAFÍA

Freshwater exchanges and surface salinity in the Colombian basin, Caribbean Sea

Emilio Beier (2017, [Artículo])

Despite the heavy regional rainfall and considerable discharge of many rivers into the Colombian Basin, there have been few detailed studies about the dilution of Caribbean Surface Water and the variability of salinity in the southwestern Caribbean. An analysis of the precipitation, evaporation and runoff in relation to the climate variability demonstrates that although the salt balance in the Colombian Basin overall is in equilibrium, the area south of 12N is an important dilution sub-basin. In the southwest of the basin, in the region of the Panama-Colombia Gyre, Caribbean Sea Water is diluted by precipitation and runoff year round, while in the northeast, off La Guajira, its salinity increases from December to May by upwelling. At the interannual scale, continental runoff is related to El Niño Southern Oscillation, and precipitation and evaporation south of 12°N are related to the Caribbean Low Level Jet. During El Niño years the maximum salinification occurs in the dry season (December-February) while in La Niña years the maximum dilution (or freshening), reaching La Guajira Coastal Zone, occurs in the wet season (September-November). © 2017 Beier et al. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.

sea water, fresh water, Article, Caribbean, dilution, dry season, El Nino, environmental parameters, evaporation, freshwater exchange, geographic distribution, molecular weight, oscillation, precipitation, river basin, salinity, seasonal variation, s CIENCIAS FÍSICO MATEMÁTICAS Y CIENCIAS DE LA TIERRA CIENCIAS DE LA TIERRA Y DEL ESPACIO OCEANOGRAFÍA OCEANOGRAFÍA