Review of Nationally Determined Contributions (NCD) of Kenya from the perspective of food systems

Tek Sapkota (2023, [Documento de trabajo])

Agriculture is one of the fundamental pillars of the 2022–2027 Bottom-up Economic Transformation Plan of the Government of Kenya for tackling complex domestic and global challenges. Kenya's food system is crucial for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Kenya has prioritized aspects of agriculture, food, and land use as critical sectors for reducing emissions towards achieving Vision 2030's transformation to a low-carbon, climate-resilient development pathway. Kenya's updated NDC, as well as supporting mitigation and adaptation technical analysis reports and other policy documents, has identified an ambitious set of agroecological transformative measures to promote climate-smart agriculture, regenerative approaches, and nature-positive solutions. Kenya is committed to implementing and updating its National Climate Change Action Plans (NCCAPs) to present and achieve the greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction targets and resilience outcomes that it has identified.

CIENCIAS AGROPECUARIAS Y BIOTECNOLOGÍA CLIMATE CHANGE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FOOD SYSTEMS LAND USE CHANGE AGRICULTURE POLICIES DATA ANALYSIS FOOD WASTES

Bundling subsurface drip irrigation with no-till provides a window to integrate mung bean with intensive cereal systems for improving resource use efficiency

Manish Kakraliya madhu choudhary Mahesh Gathala Parbodh Chander Sharma ML JAT (2024, [Artículo])

The future of South Asia’s major production system (rice–wheat rotation) is at stake due to continuously aggravating pressure on groundwater aquifers and other natural resources which will further intensify with climate change. Traditional practices, conventional tillage (CT) residue burning, and indiscriminate use of groundwater with flood irrigation are the major drivers of the non-sustainability of rice–wheat (RW) system in northwest (NW) India. For designing sustainable practices in intensive cereal systems, we conducted a study on bundled practices (zero tillage, residue mulch, precise irrigation, and mung bean integration) based on multi-indicator (system productivity, profitability, and efficiency of water, nitrogen, and energy) analysis in RW system. The study showed that bundling conservation agriculture (CA) practices with subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) saved ~70 and 45% (3-year mean) of irrigation water in rice and wheat, respectively, compared to farmers’ practice/CT practice (pooled data of Sc1 and Sc2; 1,035 and 318 mm ha−1). On a 3-year system basis, CA with SDI scenarios (mean of Sc5–Sc8) saved 35.4% irrigation water under RW systems compared to their respective CA with flood irrigation (FI) scenarios (mean of Sc3 and Sc4) during the investigation irrespective of residue management. CA with FI system increased the water productivity (WPi) and its use efficiency (WUE) by ~52 and 12.3% (3-year mean), whereas SDI improved by 221.2 and 39.2% compared to farmers practice (Sc1; 0.69 kg grain m−3 and 21.39 kg grain ha−1 cm−1), respectively. Based on the 3-year mean, CA with SDI (mean of Sc5–Sc8) recorded −2.5% rice yield, whereas wheat yield was +25% compared to farmers practice (Sc1; 5.44 and 3.79 Mg ha−1) and rice and wheat yield under CA with flood irrigation were increased by +7 and + 11%, compared to their respective CT practices. Mung bean integration in Sc7 and Sc8 contributed to ~26% in crop productivity and profitability compared to farmers’ practice (Sc1) as SDI facilitated advancing the sowing time by 1 week. On a system basis, CA with SDI improved energy use efficiency (EUE) by ~70% and partial factor productivity of N by 18.4% compared to CT practices. In the RW system of NW India, CA with SDI for precise water and N management proved to be a profitable solution to address the problems of groundwater, residue burning, sustainable intensification, and input (water and energy) use with the potential for replication in large areas in NW India.

Direct Seeded Rice Subsurface Drip Irrigation Economic Profitability Energy and Nitrogen Efficiency CIENCIAS AGROPECUARIAS Y BIOTECNOLOGÍA CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE RICE SUBSURFACE IRRIGATION IRRIGATION SYSTEMS WATER PRODUCTIVITY ECONOMIC VIABILITY ENERGY EFFICIENCY NITROGEN-USE EFFICIENCY

Influence of conservation agriculture-based production systems on bacterial diversity and soil quality in rice-wheat-greengram cropping system in eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains of India

Anup Das virender kumar Peter Craufurd Andrew Mcdonald Sonam Sherpa (2023, [Artículo])

Introduction: Conservation agriculture (CA) is gaining attention in the South Asia as an environmentally benign and sustainable food production system. The knowledge of the soil bacterial community composition along with other soil properties is essential for evaluating the CA-based management practices for achieving the soil environment sustainability and climate resilience in the rice-wheat-greengram system. The long-term effects of CA-based tillage-cum-crop establishment (TCE) methods on earthworm population, soil parameters as well as microbial diversity have not been well studied. Methods: Seven treatments (or scenarios) were laid down with the various tillage (wet, dry, or zero-tillage), establishment method (direct-or drill-seeding or transplantation) and residue management practices (mixed with the soil or kept on the soil surface). The soil samples were collected after 7 years of experimentation and analyzed for the soil quality and bacterial diversity to examine the effect of tillage-cum-crop establishment methods. Results and Discussion: Earthworm population (3.6 times), soil organic carbon (11.94%), macro (NPK) (14.50–23.57%) and micronutrients (Mn, and Cu) (13.25 and 29.57%) contents were appreciably higher under CA-based TCE methods than tillage-intensive farming practices. Significantly higher number of OTUs (1,192 ± 50) and Chao1 (1415.65 ± 14.34) values were observed in partial CA-based production system (p ≤ 0.05). Forty-two (42) bacterial phyla were identified across the scenarios, and Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Firmicutes were the most dominant in all the scenarios. The CA-based scenarios harbor a high abundance of Proteobacteria (2–13%), whereas the conventional tillage-based scenarios were dominated by the bacterial phyla Acidobacteria and Chloroflexi and found statistically differed among the scenarios (p ≤ 0.05). Composition of the major phyla, i.e., Proteobacteria, Actinobacteria, and Firmicutes were associated differently with either CA or farmers-based tillage management practices. Overall, the present study indicates the importance of CA-based tillage-cum-crop establishment methods in shaping the bacterial diversity, earthworms population, soil organic carbon, and plant nutrient availability, which are crucial for sustainable agricultural production and resilience in agro-ecosystem.

Metagenomics Bacterial Diversity Rice-Wheat-Greengram CIENCIAS AGROPECUARIAS Y BIOTECNOLOGÍA CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE DNA SEQUENCES EARTHWORMS METAGENOMICS SOIL QUALITY AGROECOSYSTEMS

Review of Nationally Determined Contributions (NCD) of China from the perspective of food systems

Tek Sapkota (2023, [Documento de trabajo])

China is the largest emitter of greenhouse gases (GHG) and one of the countries most affected by climate change. China's food systems are a major contributor to climate change: in 2018, China's food systems emitted 1.09 billion tons of carbondioxide equivalent (CO2eq) GHGs, accounting for 8.2% of total national GHG emissions and 2% of global emissions. According to the Third National Communication (TNC) Report, in 2010, GHG emissions from energy, industrial processes, agriculture, and waste accounted for 78.6%, 12.3%, 7.9%, and 1.2% of total emissions, respectively, (excluding emissions from land use, land-use change and forestry (LULUCF). Total GHG emissions from the waste sector in 2010 were 132 Mt CO2 eq, with municipal solid waste landfills accounting for 56 Mt. The average temperature in China has risen by 1.1°C over the last century (1908–2007), while nationally averaged precipitation amounts have increased significantly over the last 50 years. The sea level and sea surface temperature have risen by 90 mm and 0.9°C respectively in the last 30 years. A regional climate model predicted an annual mean temperature increase of 1.3–2.1°C by 2020 (2.3–3.3°C by 2050), while another model predicted a 1–1.6°C temperature increase and a 3.3–3.7 percent increase in precipitation between 2011 and 2020, depending on the emissions scenario. By 2030, sea level rise along coastal areas could be 0.01–0.16 meters, increasing the likelihood of flooding and intensified storm surges and causing the degradation of wetlands, mangroves, and coral reefs. Addressing climate change is a common human cause, and China places a high value on combating climate change. Climate change has been incorporated into national economic and social development plans, with equal emphasis on mitigation and adaptation to climate change, including an updated Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) in 2021. The following overarching targets are included in China's updated NDC: • Peaking carbon dioxide emissions “before 2030” and achieving carbon neutrality before 2060. • Lowering carbon intensity by “over 65%” by 2030 from the 2005 level. • Increasing forest stock volume by around 6 billion cubic meters in 2030 from the 2005 level. The targets have come from several commitments made at various events, while China has explained very well the process adopted to produce its third national communication report. An examination of China's NDC reveals that it has failed to establish quantifiable and measurable targets in the agricultural sectors. According to the analysis of the breakdown of food systems and their inclusion in the NDC, the majority of food system activities are poorly mentioned. China's interventions or ambitions in this sector have received very little attention. The adaptation component is mentioned in the NDC, but is not found to be sector-specific or comprehensive. A few studies have rated the Chinese NDC as insufficient, one of the reasons being its failure to list the breakdown of each sector's clear pathway to achieving its goals. China's NDC lacks quantified data on food system sub-sectors. Climate Action Trackers' "Insufficient" rating indicates that China's domestic target for 2030 requires significant improvements to be consistent with the Paris Agreement's target of 1.5°C temperature limit. Some efforts are being made: for example, scientists from the Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences (IEDA-CAAS) have developed methods for calculating GHG emissions from livestock and poultry farmers that have been published as an industrial standard by the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, PRC (Prof Hongmin Dong, personal communication) but this still needs to be consolidated and linked to China’s NDC. The updated Nationally Determined Contributions fall short of quantifiable targets in agriculture and food systems as a whole, necessitating clear pathways. China's NDC is found to be heavily focused on a few sectors, including energy, transportation, and urban-rural development. The agricultural sectors' and food systems' targets are vague, and China's agrifood system has a large carbon footprint. As a result, China should focus on managing the food system (production, processing, transportation, and food waste management) to reduce carbon emissions. Furthermore, China should take additional measures to make its climate actions more comprehensive, quantifiable, and measurable, such as setting ambitious and clear targets for the agriculture sector, including activity-specific GHG-reduction pathways; prioritizing food waste and loss reduction and management; promoting sustainable livestock production and low carbon diets; reducing chemical pollution; minimizing the use of fossil fuel in the agri-system and focusing on developing green jobs, technological advancement and promoting climate-smart agriculture; promoting indigenous practices and locally led adaptation; restoring degraded agricultural soils and enhancing cooperation and private partnership. China should also prepare detailed NDC implementation plans including actions and the GHG reduction from conditional targets.

CIENCIAS AGROPECUARIAS Y BIOTECNOLOGÍA GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS CLIMATE CHANGE FOOD SYSTEMS LAND USE CHANGE AGRICULTURE POLICIES DATA ANALYSIS FOOD WASTES

Agricultural emissions reduction potential by improving technical efficiency in crop production

Arun Khatri-Chhetri Tek Sapkota sofina maharjan Paresh Shirsath (2023, [Artículo])

CONTEXT: Global and national agricultural development policies normally tend to focus more on enhancing farm productivity through technological changes than on better use of existing technologies. The role of improving technical efficiency in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction from crop production is the least explored area in the agricultural sector. But improving technical efficiency is necessary in the context of the limited availability of existing natural resources (particularly land and water) and the need for GHG emission reduction from the agriculture sector. Technical efficiency gains in the production process are linked with the amount of input used nd the cost of production that determines both economic and environmental gains from the better use of existing technologies. OBJECTIVE: To assess a relationship between technical efficiency and GHG emissions and test the hypothesis that improving technical efficiency reduces GHG emissions from crop production. METHODS: This study used input-output data collected from 10,689 rice farms and 5220 wheat farms across India to estimate technical efficiency, global warming potential, and emission intensity (GHG emissions per unit of crop production) under the existing crop production practices. The GHG emissions from rice and wheat production were estimated using the CCAFS Mitigation Options Tool (CCAFS-MOT) and the technical efficiency of production was estimated through a stochastic production frontier analysis. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Results suggest that improving technical efficiency in crop production can reduce emission intensity but not necessarily total emissions. Moreover, our analysis does not support smallholders tend to be technically less efficient and the emissions per unit of food produced by smallholders can be relatively high. Alarge proportion of smallholders have high technical efficiency, less total GHG emissions, and low emissions intensity. This study indicates the levels of technical efficiency and GHG emission are largely influenced by farming typology, i.e. choice and use of existing technologies and management practices in crop cultivation. SIGNIFICANCE: This study will help to promote existing improved technologies targeting GHG emissions reduction from the agriculture production systems.

Technical Efficiency Interventions CIENCIAS AGROPECUARIAS Y BIOTECNOLOGÍA MITIGATION PRODUCTIVITY CROP PRODUCTION GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS

Review of Nationally Determined Contributions (NCD) of Vietnam from the perspective of food systems

Tek Sapkota (2023, [Documento de trabajo])

Over the past decades, Vietnam has significantly progressed and has transformed from being a food-insecure nation to one of the world’s leading exporters in food commodities, and from one of the world’s poorest countries to a low-middle-income country. The agriculture sector is dominated by rice and plays a vital role in food security, employment, and foreign exchange. Vietnam submitted its updated Nationally Determined Contributions (NDC) in 2022 based on the NDC 2020. There is a significant increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reduction, towards the long-term goals identified in Vietnam’s National Climate Change Strategy to 2025, and efforts are being made to fulfil the commitments made at COP26. The Agriculture Sector is the second-largest contributor of GHG emissions in Vietnam, accounting for 89.75 MtCO2eq, which was about 31.6 percent of total emissions in 2014. Rice cultivation is the biggest source of emissions in the agriculture sector, accounting for 49.35% of emissions from agriculture. The total GHG removal from Land Use, Land Use Change and Forestry (LULUCF) in 2014 was -37.54 MtCO2eq, of which the largest part was from the forest land sub-sector (35.61 MtCO2eq), followed by removal from croplands (7.31 MtCO2eq) (MONRE 2019).

CIENCIAS AGROPECUARIAS Y BIOTECNOLOGÍA CLIMATE CHANGE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FOOD SYSTEMS LAND USE CHANGE AGRICULTURE POLICIES DATA ANALYSIS

Review of Nationally Determined Contributions (NCD) of Colombia from the perspective of food systems

Tek Sapkota (2023, [Documento de trabajo])

Food is a vital component of Colombia's economy. The impact of climate change on agriculture and food security in the country is severe. The effects have resulted in decreased production and in the productivity of agricultural soil. Desertification processes are accelerating and intensifying. Colombia's government formally submitted its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) on December 29, 2020. This paper examines Colombia's NDC from the standpoint of the food system.

CIENCIAS AGROPECUARIAS Y BIOTECNOLOGÍA CLIMATE CHANGE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS FOOD SYSTEMS LAND USE CHANGE AGRICULTURE POLICIES DATA ANALYSIS FOOD WASTES

Fabrication of PVDF/PMMA Polymer for Sustainable Energy Harvesting .

JOSE RAYMUNDO LEPPE NEREY FERNANDO ZENAIDO SIERRA ESPINOSA MIGUEL ANGEL BASURTO PENSADO JOSE ALFREDO RODRIGUEZ RAMIREZ (2023, [Artículo])

The synthesis of blends that combine properties of two or more polymeric materials is increasingly investigated due to the versatility of the synthesis and its growing potential for many applications, including sustainability. Their characteristics are defined mainly by the synthesis conditions. Therefore, this paper details the synthesis process of easy-to-handle films using mixing method. The procedures and drawbacks found during the preparation of composite films are described. Polymeric compounds formed by the mixture of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) and polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) are addressed, varying the concentration, and evaluating their impact on the piezoelectric capacity. Films were formed through the spin-coating technique and characterized by optical and holographic microscopes. The results showed that composites with a concentration of 50 wt.% or larger of PVDF in the blend acquire a morphology with a granular appearance, however at lower concentrations they present a homogeneous morphology similar to that of PMMA. A homogeneous distribution of PVDF in the PMMA stands out. However, excessive contents of PMMA are associated to peaks and non-uniformities detected like multicolored regions by digital holography. Controlled strength-strain laboratory tests allowed to evaluate the film blends performance. The results indicate noticeable improvements in voltage output for a composition 70wt% PVDF and 30 wt% PMMA.

INGENIERÍA Y TECNOLOGÍA CIENCIAS TECNOLÓGICAS Polymer blends, Power generation, Energy harvesting, Piezoelectricity,

URBAN GREEN AND RESILIENCE: AN EXPLORATION IN CÓRDOBA, FORTÍN AND AMATLÁN, VERACRUZ, MEXICO

Rafael Arturo Muñoz-Marquez Trujillo Juan Valente Hidalgo Contreras (2022, [Artículo, Artículo])

This article shows the amount and location of Urban Green (VU) in Amatlán, Córdoba and Fortín, Veracruz, Mexico, in the context of urban resilience to global warming. The objectives of this work are: 1) to know the situation of this resource in terms of its availability (endowment) by present area; 2) measure the distances that separate the green from the population; and 3) determine the population served through the Public Urban Green (VUP) and Urban Green in general (VU-NDVI), as well as contrast with the endowment and distance recommendations of the Secretariat of Agrarian, Territorial and Urban Development (SEDATU).. The working hypotheses are: a) Fortn, Córdoba and Amatlán have a VUP allocation below that recommended by the WHO, but have the possibility of higher allocations, considering the VU-NDVI; and b) Fortín, Córdoba and Amatlán have a VUP system at a maximum distance of 400 meters from each block, and contain VU-NDVI areas at smaller distances. With census and cartographic data, satellite image processing, use of Geographic Information Systems, field verification of the data, and statistical analysis, the amount of VUP and VU-NDVI, the green area endowments per inhabitant, and the distances that separate the two types of green in the population. The results showed, on the one hand, that the allocation of VUP per inhabitant is below the WHO recommendations, but not the VU-NDVI and, on the other hand, that the VUP exceeds the maximum distance recommended by SEDATU, but not thus the VU-NDVI. Finally, it is pointed out that, although the majority of the population is served with VUP in accordance with SEDATU (although with very varied surfaces), the VU-NDVI serves 100% of it. The results show the potential of the latter to increase the share of green in cities such as those analyzed.

Urban green, resilience, endowment, distance, global warming Verde urbano resiliencia dotación distancia calentamiento global CIENCIAS SOCIALES CIENCIAS SOCIALES

Novel Low-cost Energy Harvester Based on anArrangement of Piezoelectric Actuators

CARLOS ANDRES FERRARA BELLO Margarita Tecpoyotl Torres (2024, [Artículo])

This article provides the design, modeling, fabrication, and testing of an energy

harvester from mechanical vibrations, based on a piezoelectric material. This device

works on the principle of piezoelectric transduction, i.e., when mechanically

deformed, it generates electrical energy due to vibrations. The piezoelectric material

used in the fabrication was Lead Zirconate Titanate (PZT), and brass as structural

base. In addition, finite element models were performed to predict the frequency of

the first vibration mode of the device, and experimental setups for validation. The

resonance frequency of the numerical model and the one obtained experimentally (19

Hz) show a deviation of 5.03% respectively. The generated power is 0.202 mW enough

to power low power devices such as basic calculators, wristwatches, and transistors, among others.

En este artículo se presenta el diseño, modelado, fabricación y pruebas de un cosechador de energía proveniente de vibraciones mecánicas, basado en un material piezoeléctrico. Este dispositivo trabaja bajo el principio de transducción piezoeléctrica, es decir que, al deformarse mecánicamente, debido a las vibraciones genera energía eléctrica. El material piezoeléctrico usado en la fabricación fue Zirconato Titanato de Plomo (PZT), y latón como base estructural. Además, se realizaron modelos de elemento finito para predecir la frecuencia del primer modo de vibración del dispositivo, y arreglos experimentales para su validación. La frecuencia de resonancia del modelo numérico y la obtenida experimentalmente (19 Hz) muestran una desviación de 5.03% respectivamente. La potencia generada es de0.202 mW suficiente para alimentar dispositivos de bajo consumo, tales como calculadoras básicas, relojes de pulsera y transistores, entre otros.

INGENIERÍA Y TECNOLOGÍA CIENCIAS TECNOLÓGICAS Finite Element Method, low-energy devices, vibration, piezoelectric transducer